Donald Olding Hebb: Biography and Theories

Donald Olding Hebb Biography and TheoriesObispo, Stacey L.In Chester, Nova Scotia on July 22, 1904 Donald Olding Hebb was born. Both of his p bents were medical doctors (Brown Milner, 2003). Donalds mother station schooled him till the era of 8 beca persona she was heavily influenced by the ideas of Maria Montessori, an Italian physician who believed that education of the senses should cum before break-dancement of the intellect (University of Alberta Canada, 2008). At the age of 10 Donalds academic performance was so spectacular it left his teachers amazed and as a result he was promoted to grade 7(University of Alberta Canada, 2008) . Home cultivation has been said to influence Donalds attitude towards authority and policy (University of Alberta Canada, 2008). In his high school years he avoided all adult pressure and held a paltry estimate of the value of academic achievement and as a result shoped the 11th grade (University of Alberta Canada, 2008). Donald managed to grad uate and enrolled at Dalhousie University where he received his B.A. in 1925 (University of Alberta Canada, 2008). Donald carried distain for structured schooling and had a worse than mediocre record at Dalhousie (University of Alberta Canada, 2008).In 1925 he began teaching at an elementary school at his former(a) schoolho wont in Nova Scotia for a year (University of Alberta Canada, 2008). Donald accordingly began working as a wear uponer and read Sigmund Freud (Brown Milner, 2003). After reading Freud in 1928 Hebb thought that there was atomic number 18a for opportunity in the field of Psychology and sought to go back to school and enrolled at McGill University (University of Alberta Canada, 2008). Donald became bedridden for a year with a tuberculous hip and during this time he wrote his M.A. thesis (Brown Milner, 2003). Donald tried to show in his masters thesis that skeletal reflexes are a product of jail cellular discipline (Brown Milner, 2003). He later said his thesis was nonsense (Brown Milner, 2003). In 1934 Donald made the decision to study physiological psychology, and worked with Lashley in Chicago for three academic limits (Brown Milner, 2003). In 1935 he moved to Harvard with Lashley(Brown Milner, 2003). time at Harvard the idea of aflutter ne bothrking began to take shape in Donalds mind(Brown Milner, 2003).He later used the ideas of neural ne twainrking for his PhD thesis which he submitted in 1936(Brown Milner, 2003). These ideas led him to pivotal ideas that made him famous with the creation of a new(a) branch of psychology (Brown Milner, 2003). Dr. Hebb would later conduct research on the brains of humans regarding intelligence and research on primates (Brown Milner, 2003).Hebbs research lead him to write the book The Organization of Behavior (University of Alberta Canada, 2008). His book introduced his supposition of neural ne bothrking (Brown Milner, 2003). In his book Hebb suggests that two neurons firing togeth er will strengthence the connection and make it easier for the two neurons to illicit a response from the third. In substance The neurons that fire together, wire together(Brown Milner, 2003).The implications of his findings and theory forever changed physiology and psychology.Hebbs theory has crossed over from psychology to computer science and engineering (Brown Milner, 2003). Dr. Donald Hebb received acclaim for his theory and findings and was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize and served on many boards much(prenominal) as the CPA, APA, NRC (Brown Milner, 2003). Hebb died on August 20, 1985 from what was thought to be a routine surgery on his hip (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013).Five come across findings Hebb discovered transformed the field of learning psychology. The five findings overwhelm cell company, form sequence, arousal theory, short and long precondition memory, and the Hebb rule. Hebbs theories and research are now applied in engineering, robotics, and computer sci ence as well as neurophysiology, neuroscience and psychology (Klien, 1999).The beginning to Hebbs discoveries began in 1929 when Hans Bergers announced that the brain exhibits continuous electrical body process( (Brown, Milner,2003).With this information Hebb sought explanations as to how learning and physiology interact with one other (Brown, Milner, 2003). Hebb found that at the time, explanations as to how learning was explained were by simplistic equations much(prenominal) as the S-R relationship in organisms which to him was too simplistic (Brown, Milner, 2003). He believed that the inborn activity of the row must be taken account for (Brown, Milner, 2003). Hebb thought that psychologist could no longer pret destruction that the biology of the organism was irrelevant (Brown, Milner, 2003).Behavior as Hebb saw was affected by vari equal to(p)s such(prenominal) as attention and psychological theory which could no longer be ignored (Brown, Milner, 2003). Hebb believed th at the learning was related to neural activity and current info of the time could not explain the phenomena. Hebb concluded that Classical Behaviorism could not account for electro-encephalic data which clearly demonstrated the inadequacy of the physiological data on which Classical Behaviorism was based on (Brown, Milner, 2003). As a result Hebb developed neural theory with the current neurophysiological data (Brown, Milner, 2003).One of the key findings of Hebb was the cell assembly. Understanding how environmental determinations we experience impact the brain led Hebb to the discovery of the cell assembly. The cell assembly is a pattern of neural activity that is caused when an environmental object or event is experienced (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Further more than(prenominal) when the cell assembly is well developed, the person is able to think of the entire event quest the stimulation of the assembly, even if the object itself or the event is physically absent (Olsen He rgenhahn, 2013). When a cell assembly fires we experience the event or thought the assembly represents (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Thought or ideas according to Hebb, is the cell assemblies neurological basis (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013).The next influential finding of Hebb was the form sequence. The phase sequence is a sequence of temporarily related cell assemblies. A phase sequence occurs when cell assemblies consistently fol low-spirited one another in time form(Olsen Hergenhahn,2013). Once a phase sequence is developed a temporarily integrated series of assembly activities amount to one current stream of thought (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). When a single cell assembly or combination of assemblies in a phase sequence is fired, the entire phase sequence tends to fire (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). As a result of the phase sequence firing, one experiences a stream of thought which is a series of ideas arranged in a type of logical order (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013).Another all- all-importan t(prenominal)(prenominal) finding of Hebb was his development of arousal theory which explained reinforcement. Hebb discovered that there are times in which too much noise or commotion may allow one to not think clearly while at other times, one may need to shake themselves awake to keep up with optimal performance (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Hebb discovered that these reactions suggests that there is a level of stimulation in which must not be too high or low to produce optimal cognitive functioning (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). This relationship led to Hebbs development of arousal theory (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Arousal theory according to Hebb is the contention in which brain wave activity ranges from very fast to very slow with a rate in between that allows for the optimal performance of certain tasks. (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013).Hebb contri unlessed towards growth the differentiation between long term and short term memory .Hebb completely developed the distinction between diffe rent kinds of memory and mused on the rudimentary physiological mechanisms (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Hebb believed in two forms of memory which consists of long term and short term memory (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Short term memory according to Hebb, lasts little than a minute and is related with the reverberating of neural activity created by an environmental event (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). However if an experience is repeated enough it is stored as long term memory (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). The process in which short term memory is converted into long term memory is defined as consolidation (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013).Another study contribution of Hebb lays in a learning rule. The Hebb rule is a learning rule used in computer simulation which refers to Hebbs idea that when two cells are active together, the connection between them is strengthened (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013), The Hebb rule is a mathematical statement which tries to capture Hebbs contention that the connection b etween two cells that are active simultaneously will be strengthened or made more efficient (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013).The similarities of Hebb and Pavlovs theories is that Hebbs ideas concerning formation of associations between areas that are contiguously active are not that much different from Pavlovs (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Comparatively, Hebb manage Pavlov was not the first researcher to use his ideas about brain function to theorize about higher cognitive processes (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Furthermore, it could be said the Hebb may have changed the level of analysis from larger areas of the brain to smaller numbers of neurons but retained the basic principles of Pavlov (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013).The differences between Hebb and Pavlovs theory is that Hebb along with Lashley discovered that Pavlovian theory had restrictions detailally in the belief that the brain was a complex patchboard. (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). For instance, the switchboard view of the brain assumed that sensory events stimulate specific areas of the brain and learning causes a change in neural circuitry so that sensory events come to stimulate areas other than those they originally stimulated (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Conversely Hebb and Lashley discovered through their research on rats that the location of destroyed portions of the brain was not as important as the amount of destruction (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Lashley further proved through the principle of mass action that the disruption of learning and retention goes up when the amount of cortical destruction goes up regardless of the location of the destruction (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Furthermore, when the cortex functions as a whole during learning, and suppose one part of the cortex is destroyed then the other parts of the cortex take over the destroyed portions function (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Hebb and Lashleys discoveries show that the brain did not act like a simple switchboard.Hebb impacted the field of lea rning through his discoveries on the effects of environment and neural development and arousal theory (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Hebb believed there were two kinds of learning (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). First is the gradual buildup of cell assemblies and phase sequences during infancy and early childhood (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Both cell assemblies and phase sequences in early childhood develop in early learning in which the objects and events in the environment have neurological representations (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). As a result of this neural development, children can think of an object or event, series of objects and events, when it is not physically present (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). According to Hebb the second kind of learning, occurs when cell assemblies and phase sequences are developed in early life, then subsequent learning involves their rearrangement (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). One way of putting it, once the building blocks have been established (first kind of lea rning) they can then be rearranged in numerous configurations (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Another contribution to the field of learning was Hebbs arousal theory. Arousal theory shows that for any given student or task efficient learning occurs when there is an optimal level of arousal (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Together environment and neural development along with arousal theory have contributed towards the field of education.ReferencesBrown, R. E., Milner, P. M. (2003). The legacy of Donald O. Hebb more than the Hebb synapse. Nature Reviews/Neuroscience, 4, 1019.Klien, R. M. (1999). The Hebb legacy. Canadian Journal for Experimental Psychology, 53(1), 3.Olsen, M. H., Hergenhahn, B. R. (2013) Introduction to theories of learning. 9th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ Pearson. 9780205871865University of Alberta Canada. (2008). Dr. Donald Hebb. Retrieved from http//www.psych.ualberta.ca/GCPWS/index.htmlExport Strategy Advantages and DisadvantagesExport Strategy Advantages and Disadvantage s1.0. EXECUTIVE SUMMARYThe take of this report was to analyze the different strategies for tradeing that are available to an organization planetaryizing for the first time. Specific objectives were to identify the drawbacks and benefits of an export scheme. The report recommends an organization taking up exportation as a means of internationalization but also emphasizes that for exporting to be fully successful, the organization must come out it in a systematic way so that it may derive the full benefits associated with exporting.2.0. TERMS OF REFERENCEMy name is Amina J M Matongo,I am a student analyze for my Bachelor of Arts in Business Studies at The Zambia Centre For accountancy Studies through the Greenwich University. The content in this report is based on examining different export strategies available to a self-colored deprivation to command for the first time and the advantages and disadvantages of an export strategy.3.0. METHODOLOGYThe information contained an d gathered in this report has been collected from international transaction concern literature, texts, past knowledge and the World Wide Web.4.0. INTRODUCTIONA number of market place entry strategies are available for a firm wish to internationalize into foreign markets. Entry strategies include Exporting, Licensing, Franchising, strategic alliances, joint ventures and wholly owned subsidiaries. But because exporting entails limited risk, expense and knowledge of foreign markets and transactions, or so organizations prefer exporting as their primary foreign market strategy. Exporting is a strategy of producing products or services in one country (ofttimes the producers situation country), and then selling and distributing to customers in another country. The organization that is exporting retains its manufacturing activities in the home market but conducts marketing, distribution and customer service activities in the export market, the firm may conduct the latter activities i tself or contract with an independent distributor or agent to have them performed (Cavusgil, Knight ,Riesenberger).Organizations venturing abroad for the first time, use exporting as an entry strategy, but beyond primary entry, all types of firms, large and small use exporting regardless of their peak of internationalization. Large companies such as Boeing and Toyota have used exporting in conjunction with other entry strategies.Compared to more complex strategies such as foreign range investment funds (FDI), the exporter can both enter and withdraw from the markets fairly easily, with minimal risk and expense. Exporting may be employed repeatedly during the firms internationalization process.(reference 1)4.1. The reasons why organizations internationalize includeTo seek opportunities for growth through market diversification. Substantial market authorization exists outside the home country and this is how firms both large and small flummox more than half their sales from market s abroad.Many foreign markets may be underserved for example high emerging markets, thus they have high demand and less intense competitive pressures which entails higher margins and lucres for the firm.Firms are break down able to serve key customers who have relocated abroad. For example when Toyota opened its first milling machinery in the UK, many Japanese auto parts suppliers followed, establishing their own operations there.To collide with access to lower-cost or better-value factors of production .Internationalization enables the firm to access capital, technology, managerial talent, labor and land at lower be, higher quality, or better overall value at locations worldwide.Another driver for internationalization is that the firm is able to develop economies of scale in sourcing, production, marketing and RD .Also the firm will be closer to supply sources, benefit from global sourcing advantages, and gain new ideas about products, services and business methods. Unique for eign environments expose firms to new ideas for products, processes and business methods. (reference 2).5.0. DISCUSSIONAccording to Cavusgil, Knight and Riesenberger, the more experienced managers will use a systematic approach to exporting to improve the firms prospects for successful exporting.This approach should be as follows5.1.1. Step one, assess global market opportunityManagement assesses the various global market opportunities available to the organization. The organizations readiness to internationalize and choose the most attractive export markets, identifies qualified distributors and other foreign business partners then estimates industry market authorisation and company sales potential.5.1.2. Step two, organize for ExportingThe second step is for managers to address the questions of what types of financial, managerial and productive resources should be committed to exporting? And to what extent should the firm rely on domesticated and foreign intermediaries to carry out exporting? Options open to the organization are either to use in choose exporting which is exporting through intermediaries in the home market or direct exporting which is through intermediaries in the foreign market.5.1.3. Step three, Acquire needed skills and competencesExporting is often complex and as a result requires specialized skills and competencies. Meaning the organization will need to acquire these skills and competencies, train staff and engage appropriate facilitating firms such as freight forwarders ,bankers etc.5.1.4. Step four, Implement the export strategyIn this final stage, management formulates elements of the organizations export strategy. This may involve product variation to modify a product to make it fit the needs and tastes of buyers. In export markets with many competitors, the exporter needs to adapt its products/services in order to gain a competitive advantage. For example when Microsoft markets computer software in Germany, it must ensure the so ftware is written in German.Marketing communications adaptation refers to modifying advertising, selling, earthly concern relations and promotional activities to suit individual markets. Marketing activities are adapted depending on the nature of the site market, nature of the product/service, the firms position relative to competitors and managements specific goals and objectives.Price competitiveness refers to efforts to keep foreign pricing in line with that of competitors, the exporter may need to charge competitive prices .In the case of small and medium enterprises (SMEs), they may lack the resources to compete head to head on pricing with larger rivals. Such companies do not compete based on price but by emphasizing the non-price benefits of their products/services such as quality, reliability and brand leadership.Distribution strategy often hinges on developing strong and mutually secure relations with foreign intermediaries. Companies provide ongoing support to distribut ors and subsidiaries in the form of sales force, training, technical assistance, marketing know how, promotional support and pricing incentives. In markets with numerous competitors, the exporter may need to boost the capabilities of distributors.SOURCE Adapted from Cavusgil et al,strategy, management and the new realities, pearson, 2008.pg 391.6.0. STRATEGIES FOR EXPORTING MAY BE LOOSELY GROUPED INTO THREE CATEGORIES6.1. purport Exporting show exporting involves direct marketing and selling to the client that is contracting with intermediaries located in the foreign market to perform export functions intermediaries include foreign based sales agents and distributors.These intermediaries or agents perform downstream value chain activities in the target market. If a firm has a reasonably come-at-able market, direct exporting of products and services may be a viable option .But where the firm faces less familiar markets with different legal and regulatory environments, business prac tices, customs and or preferences, direct exporting may not be an attractive option. A local partner for example may be better able to manage these complexities and serve the organizations potential clients better.6.1.1. Advantages of direct exportingThe exporting company will be able to establish a direct butt with a foreign trading partner, and not only operates through its own foreign trade companies abroad but also has the best opportunity for direct participation in foreign transactions.Target management and control of the sales become possible which is unrealistic in the case of indirect exports.The strategy offers potential for higher profits because of more direct contact.Direct exports may also enable the producer to have a closer relationship with foreign buyers and the marketplace.Direct exporting is applicable to a wider range of goods and services.6.1.2. Disadvantages of direct exportingDirect exports are affected by other conditions. For example, the deterioration of exchange rates, if the rate of domestic currencies of third countries increases on the markets where the firm exports, it may cause the company to become relatively uncompetitive in overseas markets.Direct exporting may be inappropriate for goods with a short work life and are unlikely to be exported, goods such as those which may have high transport costs or goods that require complex after -sales service which cannot be granted by resellers.Direct exporting may require the producer to acquire new capabilities like marketing skills and financial resources in order to be able to contract with clients or business partners.6.2. Indirect ExportingThis method of exporting is in the first place used by producers in the transportation, Automobile and Equipment manufacturing industries. For example, the Toyota Motor corporation.Indirect exporting entails contracting with intermediaries in the producers home country to perform export functions these are intermediaries such as an export man agement company (EMC) or a Trading company. These intermediaries are responsible for finding foreign buyers in the target market, shipping products and receiving payment.The types of intermediaries domestic based exporting merchants who sell the products abroad and domestic based export agents who sell on behalf of the exporter but do not take title of the products agents are usually paid by commission.The producer/ exporter should exercise caution when selecting an agent or distributor for indirect exporting.6.2.1. The advantages of indirect exportingThe principal advantage of indirect exporting for most organizations is that it provides a way to penetrate the foreign markets without the complexities and risks of more direct exporting. The international organization can start exporting with no additive investment in fixed capital, low startup costs and few risks, but with prospects for incremental sales.The exporter will have less complexity in relations with when selling product s in foreign markets, complexities which range from clashing cultures to volatile exchange rates.The exporter will not have to worry about managing product distribution in a foreign country as this is done by an export partner.The market entry barriers tend to be less in this form of exporting.In indirect exporting, the legal relationships exist between the organizations supplier (intermediary) and its immediate client buyer. Questions of jurisdiction in international lawsuits become less of an issue for the indirect exporter.The verbal expression of managing ongoing end user relationships is eliminated for the producer.Compared with other forms of access to foreign markets and their development, indirect exports require scarce resources. This will be an advantage for small and medium enterprises (SMEs) wishing to internationalize.The producer will have more time to focus on the core competencies of their business operations.Indirect exporting does not require a dance orchestra of organizational effort or commitment of staff workers, the firm only employs a small number of employees as the master(prenominal) work is carried out by foreign trade partners.In the event that this export strategy does not lead to achievement of goals, the exporter can easily withdraw from the market.6.2.2. The disadvantages of indirect exportingThe main disadvantage of indirect exports is that not all brokers are using the optimum market potential and opportunities for marketing, thus mistakes and miscalculations in their actions affect the income of producers of export goods.Indirect exporting may lead to diminishing returns in the long run as trading partners try to get maximum profit from their service as mediators.While the exporter using intermediaries to export can save a lot of money in the short and medium term, this type of supplier has little or no control over the business activities in international markets.By using an intermediary, the indirect exporter may lose out on brand recognition and committedness in international markets, thus leaving this opportunity and domain to larger firms.Lastly the producer using indirect exports may lack recognition from the end users of the product or service, who are much more familiar with the end product.6.2.3 The third option open to exporters is to export by establishing strategic partnerships with other organizations or individuals that have complementary skills or capabilities. The partner may often provide the insight, contacts and experience that fill the gap in the organizations export readiness.The advantage is that an alliance with a company selling a complementary product or service can provide the producer with more effective market access, resulting in more foreign sales in less time.A disadvantage may be that the two partners will not achieve synergistic benefits causing a failure in organizations export ventures.It should be noted though that many organizations use both approaches for differe nt foreign markets. Key issues for deciding whether to use direct or indirect exporting are (1) the level of resources in terms of time, capital and managerial expertise that management is willing to commit to international elaborateness and individual markets(2) the strategic importance of the foreign market (3) the nature of the firms products, including the need for after sales support and (4) the availability of capable foreign intermediaries in the target market.(reference 3).7.0. AN EXPORT STRATEGYAs mentioned earlier ,exporting is the strategy of producing in the home country and then selling to buyers in foreign markets or abroad .Organizations that use exporting as a strategy include 3M (the Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Co.) which makes tape, sand paper and medical products amongst other products. 3M is a major exporter with revenues of over $2billion in exports. Another export success story is FCX (based in west Virginia) systems which makes power converters for the aerospace industry ,this organization generates over half of its $20million in annual sales from exports to more than 50countries(reference 4),a third example would be the Toyota Motor Corporation.The advantages and disadvantages of exporting to the above named organizations are7.1. AdvantagesOrganizations can increase sales volume, improve market share and generate profit margins that are often more favorable than in the domestic market.The exporter is able to diversify the customer base, reducing dependence on home markets. For example Toyota is in different regions thus they have a diverse customer base.Economies of scale will increase and therefore reduce the per unit cost of manufacturing.Exporting allows the exporter to lessen risk and maximize flexibility that is compared to other forms of internationalization. If situations necessitate, the firm can quickly withdraw from an export market.As compared to other forms of entry, exporting is a low risk, low cost strategy as it does not require the exporter to establish a physical presence there. Organizations can test potential markets before committing greater resources.The exporter is able to stabilize fluctuations in sales associated with economic cycles or seasonality of demand. For example, a firm can offset declining demand at home due to an economic fadeout by refocusing efforts toward those countries that are experiencing more robust economic growth.Also the exporter is able to leverage the capabilities and skills of foreign distributors and other business partners located abroad.Lastly the exporting organization is able to develop meaningful foreign relationships abroad.7.2. DisadvantagesCompared to foreign direct investment, the exporter has fewer opportunities to acquire and learn knowledge about customers, competitors and the marketplace. Meaning that it may fail to perceive opportunities and threats.An export strategy will require the organization to acquire new capabilities and dedicate org anizational resources to properly conduct export transactions .Firms that are serious about exporting must hire staff with competency in international transactions and foreign languages.Exporting is much more erogenous to tariff and other trade barriers and fluctuations in exchange rates.Many of the pitfalls associated with exporting can be avoided if a company hires an experienced export management company, or export consultant, and if it adopts the appropriate export strategy. (Hill, 2009).8.0. CONCLUSIONSFirms venturing abroad for the first time usually use exporting as their mode of entry. Exporting is also the entry strategy most favored by small and medium-sized enterprises. But beyond initial entry all types of firms, large and small use exporting regardless of their stage of internationalization. Exporting is the entry strategy responsible for the massive inflows and outflows that constitute global trade. Exporting typically generates substantial foreign exchange earnings f or nations.For example in the United States, SMEs account for a great proportion of all U.S exporters. From 1992 to 2004, they represented nearly 100 percent of the growth in the U.S exporter population, swelling from about 108,000 firms in 1992 to over 225,000 firms by 2004. SMEs were responsible for nearly a third of merchandise exports from the United States in 2006.(Cavusgil, Knight, Riesenberger).9.0. RECOMMENDATIONSSince it is possible to use both direct and indirect exporting simultaneously in different target markets, my recommendation would be to apply either direct or indirect exporting depending on the target markets and the conditions that achieve in those markets. Both methods of exporting can be used successfully.